Social Aspects of Military Elites in Japan in the Early Twentieth Century
Keywords:
officers, social background, civilian officials, selectionAbstract
This paper focuses on army officers known as the military elite, with the aim of discussing their social aspects by comparing them with those of civilian officials from the perspective of their social background and selection process. On this basis, one of the causes of the destabilization of harmonious relations between military and civilian elites from the late-1920s onwards is examined. Since educational opportunities and professional employment opportunities became more inclusive and disassociated with specific groups, both elites began emerging from the same social base. The theory in previous studies, which states that this resulted in a gap between the social backgrounds of the two elites, causing instability in their relationship, lacks accuracy. In fact, attention must be paid to the examination-based system in elite circles instead. Both, the military elite and bureaucrats, were recruited from a wide range of people socially characterized as survivors of intense competition. Both elites enhanced their pride, and the groups became composed of those worthy of their status in 1920. As a result, the degree of compromise between the two declined and became one of the factors of the conflict.
References
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Kaigun Heigakkō (Ed.). (1968). Kaigun Heigakkō enkaku [History of the naval academy]. Tokyo: Hara Shobō. (in Japanese)
Kaigun Yūshūkai (Ed.). (1937). Kaigun shikan o kokorozasu hito no tameni [For those aspiring to be navy officers]. Tokyo: Kaigun Yūshūkai. (in Japanese)
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Ko Yamakawa Danshaku Kinenkai (Ed.). (1937). Danshaku Yamakawa sensei ikō [Baron Yamakawa’s posthumous writings]. Kyoto: Ko Yamakawa Danshaku Kinenkai. (in Japanese)
Kurono, T. (2004). Sanbō Honbu to Rikugun Daigakkō [Office of Army General Staff and War College]. Tokyo: Kōdansha. (in Japanese)
Kyū Kōbu Daigakkō Shiryō Hensankai (Ed.). (1931). Kyū Kōbu Daigakkō Shiryō [Historical documents of Imperial College of Engineering]. Tokyo: Toranomonkai. (in Japanese)
Lory, H. (1943). Japan's military masters: The army in Japanese life. New York: Viking Press. (in Japanese)
Mannari, H. (1965). Bijinesu erīto: Nihon ni okeru keieisha no jōken [Business elite: Conditions of managers in Japan]. Tokyo: Chūōkōron Sha. (in Japanese)
Miyazaki, I. (1984). Kakyo: Chūgoku no shiken zigoku [Imperial examination: ordeal of examination in China]. Tokyo: Chūōkōron Sha. (in Japanese)
Mizutani, M. (1999). Kanryō no fūbō [Bureaucratic appearance]. Tokyo: Chūōkōron Shinsha. (in Japanese)
Mochida, Y. (1998). Doitsu erīto yōsei no shakaishi: Gimunajiumu to abitūa no sekai [Social history of elite training in Germany: The world of gymnasium and abitur]. Kyoto: Mineruba Shobō. (in Japanese)
Monbudaijin Kanbō Bunshoka (1943). Monbushō nenpō [Annual report of the Ministry of Education of Japan]. Tokyo: Monbushō. (in Japanese)
Monbushō Shisōkyoku (Ed.). (1933). Shisō chōsa shiryō jūkyū shū [Thought investigation material vol. 19]. Tokyo: Monbushō. (in Japanese)
Naikaku Insatsukyoku (1930). Shokuin roku Showa gonen sichigatsu tsuitachi genzai [Blue book as of 1 July 1930]. Tokyo: Naikaku Insatsukyoku. (in Japanese)
Naikaku Kanpōkyoku (1900). Shokuinroku Meiji sanjūsan nen [Blue book 1900]. Tokyo: Insatsukyoku. (in Japanese)
Nomura, K. (1995). Kanri shikaku no seido to kinō [Institution and functions of official capacity]. In Y. Mochida (Ed.), Kindai doitsu shikaku shakai no seido to kinō [Modern Germany: Institution and functions of the qualification-oriented society] (pp. 17-46). Nagoya: Nogoya Daigaku Shuppankai. (in Japanese)
Nun, J. (1986). The middle-class military coups revisited. In A. F. Lowenthal, & J. S. Fitch (Eds.), Armies and politics in Latin America (pp. 59-95). New York: Holmes & Meier.
Oki, S. (1995). Anami Korechika den [A life of Korechika Anami]. Tokyo: Kōdansha. (in Japanese)
Pereira, L. C. B. (1962). The rise of middle class and middle management in Brazil. Journal of Inter-American Studies, 4(3), 313-326.
Rikugundaijin Kanbō (1914). Rikugunshō tōkei nenpō [Ministry of army annual report of Statistics]. Tokyo: Rikugunshō. (in Japanese)
Rikugundaijin Kanbō (1919). Rikugunshō tōkei nenpō [Ministry of army annual report of Statistics]. Tokyo: Rikugunshō. (in Japanese)
Shōkōseito Shiken Jōchiiin (1919). Rikugun shōkō shigansha ni nozomu [Requirements for candidates for officers]. Chūgaku Sekai [Secondary School World], 22(12), 4-7. (in Japanese)
Smith, T. C. (1988). Native sources of Japanese industrialization, 1750-1920. Barkley: University of California Press.
Sonoda, H. (1983). Gakureki shakai: Sono Nihonteki tokushitsu [The Japanese characteristics of degreeocracy]. Kyōiku Shakaigaku Kenkyū [Educational Sociology Research], 38, 50-58. (in Japanese)
Sonoda, H., Hamana, A., & Hirota, T. (1995). Shizoku no rekishishakaigakuteki kenkyū: Bushi no kindai [Historical sociological Study of the samurai: Modern samurai]. Nagoya: Nogoya Daigaku Shuppankai. (in Japanese)
Spaulding, R. M. (1967). Imperial Japan’s higher civil service examinations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Stepan, A. C. (1971). The military in politics: Changing patterns in Brazil. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971.
Stepan, A. (1986). The new professionalism of internal warfare and military role expansion. In A. F. Lowenthal, & J. S. Fitch (Eds.), Armies and politics in Latin America (pp. 134-150). New York: Holmes & Meier.
Sugimori, H. (1963). Tsuji Masanobu [Masanobu Tsuji]. Tokyo: Bungei Shunjū Shinsha. (in Japanese)
Sugimoto, H. (1908). Kaigun Heigakkō seikatsu [School life at the Naval Academy]. Tokyo: Kōmura Shuppanbu. (in Japanese)
Suyama, Y. (1983). Sakusen no oni: Obata Toshirō [Master of strategy: Toshiro Obata]. Tokyo: Fuyō Shobō. (in Japanese)
Takeishi, N. (2010). Rikugun shōkō no senbatsu shōshin kōzō [Structure of selection and promotion in the Japanese imperial army]. Kyōiku Shakaigaku Kenkyū [Educational Sociology Research], 87, 25-45. (in Japanese)
Takeishi, N. (2017). Kanryō no senbatsu haibun kōzō: Futatsu no sekiji eno chakumoku [Structure of selection and allocation in bureaucracy]. Kyōiku Shakaigaku Kenkyū [Educational Sociology Research], 100, 265-284. (in Japanese)
Takeuchi, Y. (1999). Gakureki kizoku no eikō to zasetsu [The glory and fall of the educated nobility]. Tokyo: Chūōkōron Shinsha. (in Japanese)
Tobe, R. (1998). Gyakusetsu no guntai [Army of paradox]. Tokyo: ChūōKōron Shinsha. (in Japanese)
Tokyo Teikokudaigaku Gakuyūkai Kyōsaibu Jōmuiin (Ed.). (193-26). Tokyo Teikokudaigaku gakusei seikei chōsa [Tokyo imperial university student living survey]. Tokyo: Tokyo Teikokudaigaku Gakuyūkai Kyōsaibu. (in Japanese)
Akamatsu, S. (1985). Tōjō hishokan kimitsu nisshi [Secret diary of Tōjō's secretary]. Tokyo: Bungei Shunjū. (in Japanese)
Axelrod, A. (2009). Patton: A biography. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Amano, I. (1982). Kyōiku to senbatsu [Education and selection]. Tokyo: Daiichi Hōki Shuppan. (in Japanese)
Anno, T. (1916). Kaigun Heigakkō nyūgaku shiken seiseki kenbetsu kōhyō [Naval Academy entrance examination results review by prefecture]. Chūgaku Sekai [Secondary School World], 19(5), 138-148. (in Japanese)
Aramusha (1916). Daigaku juken no kokuhaku [Confession of War College entrance examination]. Tokyo: Heiji Zasshisha. (in Japanese)
Asami, M. (2005). Kazoku wa kizoku ka: Teihen no kazokutachi [Is kazoku the aristocracy?: The nobility at the bottom]. In H. Sonoda (Ed.), Gyakuketsujo no nihon seikatsubunka: Nihon ni arumono wa sekai ni aruka [Japanese lifestyle outside the country: Does the rest of the world have what Japan has?] (pp.15-33). Kyoto: Shibunkaku Shuppan. (in Japanese)
Bamford, T. W. (1967). Rise of the public schools: A study of boys’ public boarding schools in England and Wales from 1837 to the present day. London: Nelson.
Daiichi Kōtōgakkō (Ed.). (1939). Daiichi Kōtōgakkō rokujūnenshi [Sixty-year history of the First Higher School]. Tokyo: Daiichi Kōtōgakkō. (in Japanese)
Dore, R. P. (1976). The diploma disease: Education, qualification and development. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
Dore, R. P. (1984). Education in Tokugawa Japan. London: Atlone Press.
Drea, E. J. (2009). Japan's imperial army: Its rise and fall, 1853-1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
Fujii, Y (1995). Igirisu chūtō kyōiku seidoshi kenkyū [Historical study of British secondary education system]. Tokyo: Kazama Shobō. (in Japanese)
Fujii, Y. (1996). Paburikku sukūru: Teikokushugi no onshō [Public school: The hotbed of imperialism]. In M. Matsumura (Ed.), Eikoku bunka no seiki: Teikoku shakai no shosō [Century of British culture: Aspects of imperial society] (pp. 157-180). Tokyo: Kenkyūsha Shuppan. (in Japanese)
Harries, M. and Harries, S. (1994). Soldiers of the sun: The rise and fall of the Imperial Japanese army. New York: Random house.
Gunther, J. (1952). Eisenhower, the man and the symbol. New York: Harper.
Hashimoto, N., Fujii, Y., Watanabe, K., Shindō, S., & Yasuhara, Y. Erīto kyōiku [Elite education]. Kyoto: Mineruba Shobō. (in Japanese)
Hata, I. (1980). Gun fashizumu undōshi [History of military fascist movement]. Tokyo: Hara Shobō. (in Japanese)
Hata, I. (Ed.). (1991). Nihon rikukaigun sōgō jiten [Encyclopaedia of Japanese army and navy]. Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai. (in Japanese)
Hirota, T. (1997). Rikugun shōkō no kyōiku shakaishi: Risshin shusse to tennōsei [History of educational sociology of army officers: Success and the imperial system]. Yokohama: Seori Shobō. (in Japanese)
Hokkaido Teikokudaigaku (1936). Gakusei seito seikatsu chōsa hōkoku [Student life survey report]. Sapporo: Hokkaido Teikokudaigaku. (in Japanese)
Humphreys, L. A. (1995). The way of the heavenly sword: The Japanese army in the 1920's. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Janowitz, M. (2017). The professional soldier: A social and political portrait. New York: Free Press.
Jōhō, Y. (Ed.). (1973). Rikugun Daigakkō [War College]. Tokyo: Fuyō Shobō. (in Japanese)
Kaigun Heigakkō (Ed.). (1968). Kaigun Heigakkō enkaku [History of the naval academy]. Tokyo: Hara Shobō. (in Japanese)
Kaigun Yūshūkai (Ed.). (1937). Kaigun shikan o kokorozasu hito no tameni [For those aspiring to be navy officers]. Tokyo: Kaigun Yūshūkai. (in Japanese)
Kanazawa, M., Kawakita, Y., & Yuasa, Y. (Eds.). (1968). Kazoku: Meiji hyakunen no sokumenshi [Kazoku: Meiji 100-year side history]. Tokyo: Kōdansha. (in Japanese)
Kikuchi, J. (2003). Kindai nihon no kyōiku kikai to shakai kaisō [Educational opportunities and social strata in modern Japan]. Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai. (in Japanese)
Ko Yamakawa Danshaku Kinenkai (Ed.). (1937). Danshaku Yamakawa sensei ikō [Baron Yamakawa’s posthumous writings]. Kyoto: Ko Yamakawa Danshaku Kinenkai. (in Japanese)
Kurono, T. (2004). Sanbō Honbu to Rikugun Daigakkō [Office of Army General Staff and War College]. Tokyo: Kōdansha. (in Japanese)
Kyū Kōbu Daigakkō Shiryō Hensankai (Ed.). (1931). Kyū Kōbu Daigakkō Shiryō [Historical documents of Imperial College of Engineering]. Tokyo: Toranomonkai. (in Japanese)
Lory, H. (1943). Japan's military masters: The army in Japanese life. New York: Viking Press. (in Japanese)
Mannari, H. (1965). Bijinesu erīto: Nihon ni okeru keieisha no jōken [Business elite: Conditions of managers in Japan]. Tokyo: Chūōkōron Sha. (in Japanese)
Miyazaki, I. (1984). Kakyo: Chūgoku no shiken zigoku [Imperial examination: ordeal of examination in China]. Tokyo: Chūōkōron Sha. (in Japanese)
Mizutani, M. (1999). Kanryō no fūbō [Bureaucratic appearance]. Tokyo: Chūōkōron Shinsha. (in Japanese)
Mochida, Y. (1998). Doitsu erīto yōsei no shakaishi: Gimunajiumu to abitūa no sekai [Social history of elite training in Germany: The world of gymnasium and abitur]. Kyoto: Mineruba Shobō. (in Japanese)
Monbudaijin Kanbō Bunshoka (1943). Monbushō nenpō [Annual report of the Ministry of Education of Japan]. Tokyo: Monbushō. (in Japanese)
Monbushō Shisōkyoku (Ed.). (1933). Shisō chōsa shiryō jūkyū shū [Thought investigation material vol. 19]. Tokyo: Monbushō. (in Japanese)
Naikaku Insatsukyoku (1930). Shokuin roku Showa gonen sichigatsu tsuitachi genzai [Blue book as of 1 July 1930]. Tokyo: Naikaku Insatsukyoku. (in Japanese)
Naikaku Kanpōkyoku (1900). Shokuinroku Meiji sanjūsan nen [Blue book 1900]. Tokyo: Insatsukyoku. (in Japanese)
Nomura, K. (1995). Kanri shikaku no seido to kinō [Institution and functions of official capacity]. In Y. Mochida (Ed.), Kindai doitsu shikaku shakai no seido to kinō [Modern Germany: Institution and functions of the qualification-oriented society] (pp. 17-46). Nagoya: Nogoya Daigaku Shuppankai. (in Japanese)
Nun, J. (1986). The middle-class military coups revisited. In A. F. Lowenthal, & J. S. Fitch (Eds.), Armies and politics in Latin America (pp. 59-95). New York: Holmes & Meier.
Oki, S. (1995). Anami Korechika den [A life of Korechika Anami]. Tokyo: Kōdansha. (in Japanese)
Pereira, L. C. B. (1962). The rise of middle class and middle management in Brazil. Journal of Inter-American Studies, 4(3), 313-326.
Rikugundaijin Kanbō (1914). Rikugunshō tōkei nenpō [Ministry of army annual report of Statistics]. Tokyo: Rikugunshō. (in Japanese)
Rikugundaijin Kanbō (1919). Rikugunshō tōkei nenpō [Ministry of army annual report of Statistics]. Tokyo: Rikugunshō. (in Japanese)
Shōkōseito Shiken Jōchiiin (1919). Rikugun shōkō shigansha ni nozomu [Requirements for candidates for officers]. Chūgaku Sekai [Secondary School World], 22(12), 4-7. (in Japanese)
Smith, T. C. (1988). Native sources of Japanese industrialization, 1750-1920. Barkley: University of California Press.
Sonoda, H. (1983). Gakureki shakai: Sono Nihonteki tokushitsu [The Japanese characteristics of degreeocracy]. Kyōiku Shakaigaku Kenkyū [Educational Sociology Research], 38, 50-58. (in Japanese)
Sonoda, H., Hamana, A., & Hirota, T. (1995). Shizoku no rekishishakaigakuteki kenkyū: Bushi no kindai [Historical sociological Study of the samurai: Modern samurai]. Nagoya: Nogoya Daigaku Shuppankai. (in Japanese)
Spaulding, R. M. (1967). Imperial Japan’s higher civil service examinations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Stepan, A. C. (1971). The military in politics: Changing patterns in Brazil. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971.
Stepan, A. (1986). The new professionalism of internal warfare and military role expansion. In A. F. Lowenthal, & J. S. Fitch (Eds.), Armies and politics in Latin America (pp. 134-150). New York: Holmes & Meier.
Sugimori, H. (1963). Tsuji Masanobu [Masanobu Tsuji]. Tokyo: Bungei Shunjū Shinsha. (in Japanese)
Sugimoto, H. (1908). Kaigun Heigakkō seikatsu [School life at the Naval Academy]. Tokyo: Kōmura Shuppanbu. (in Japanese)
Suyama, Y. (1983). Sakusen no oni: Obata Toshirō [Master of strategy: Toshiro Obata]. Tokyo: Fuyō Shobō. (in Japanese)
Takeishi, N. (2010). Rikugun shōkō no senbatsu shōshin kōzō [Structure of selection and promotion in the Japanese imperial army]. Kyōiku Shakaigaku Kenkyū [Educational Sociology Research], 87, 25-45. (in Japanese)
Takeishi, N. (2017). Kanryō no senbatsu haibun kōzō: Futatsu no sekiji eno chakumoku [Structure of selection and allocation in bureaucracy]. Kyōiku Shakaigaku Kenkyū [Educational Sociology Research], 100, 265-284. (in Japanese)
Takeuchi, Y. (1999). Gakureki kizoku no eikō to zasetsu [The glory and fall of the educated nobility]. Tokyo: Chūōkōron Shinsha. (in Japanese)
Tobe, R. (1998). Gyakusetsu no guntai [Army of paradox]. Tokyo: ChūōKōron Shinsha. (in Japanese)
Tokyo Teikokudaigaku Gakuyūkai Kyōsaibu Jōmuiin (Ed.). (193-26). Tokyo Teikokudaigaku gakusei seikei chōsa [Tokyo imperial university student living survey]. Tokyo: Tokyo Teikokudaigaku Gakuyūkai Kyōsaibu. (in Japanese)
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2019-12-27
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