Problems of Participation of the Women Leaders in the Union Parishad in Bangladesh: Unheard Voices and Grim Realities
Article Sidebar
Keywords:
Problems of woman leaders Local government Union Parishad Bangladesh
Main Article Content
Abstract
This paper discusses obstacles of participation of the women leaders (WLs) in the grassroots based local government in Bangladesh, i.e. Union Parishad (UP). Local government of Bangladesh has a history of 145 years but women’s representation is ensured just only 2 decades ago. Within 2 decades time span, WLs fails to ensure their effective participation due to some built-in problems of the UP. Against such a context, the paper is aimed at unraveling the research question: What are the problems WLs facing in ensuring their participation? The paper is based on phenomenological approach which was supported by case study, content analysis and observation methods. The findings of the paper reveal that women leaders identified 3 major challenges towards playing their role and participation in the UP such as i) patriarchy or male domination, ii) corruption and iii) faulty legal provision imposed upon them. Solution might be changing the legal and structural arrangements in the UP. Prerogatives for women’s education should be expanded in the society to promote pluralistic and participatory mechanisms so that women can take part in the sphere of local governance and such efforts should help modify patriarchal values system and other social ills around it.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
Article Details
Section
Articles
All rights reserved. Apart from citations for the purposes of research, private study, or criticism and review,no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any other form without prior written permission by the publisher.
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2001a) Country Briefing Paper: Women in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Asian Development Bank (ADB).
Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2001b) Technical Assistance for Gender and Governance Issues in Local Government. Dhaka: ADB.
Ahmed, T. and Quader, A. (1993) Local Governments at the Grassroots: Some Recommendation for Structural Recommendation. Comilla: BARD.
Alam, A. and Karim, K. M. R. (2007) Women Empowerment at Union Parishad Level: A Case Study in Selected Unions of Jessore District. Empowerment 14:1-16.
Alam, B. A. and Begum, R. A. (1974) Violence and Union Parishad Leadership: A Few Statistics. Local Government Quarterly 8(1-4).
Amin, R. and Akhter, S. (2005) Women Participation in Local Government and Social Integration in Rural Bangladesh. Paper presented in Workshop on Enlarging Citizen Participation and Increasing Local Autonomy in Achieving Societal Harmony held in Beijing, PRC by Network of Asia-Pacific Schools and Institutes of Public Administration and Governance (NAPSIPAG) Annual Conference 2005, 5-7 December 2005.
Aminuzzaman, S. M. (2011) Local Governance Innovations: An Assessment of the Challenges for Mainstreaming Local Governance Support Program.In Understanding Governance and Public Policy in Bangladesh, edited by I. Jamil, S. M. Aminuzzaman, S. Askvik, and S. M. H. Tawfique. North South University, Bangladesh: Master in Public Policy and Governance Program.
Anderson, N. F. (1993) Benzir Bhutto and dynasties: Her Father’s Daughter, Her People’s Sister. In Women as National Leaders, M. A. Genovese. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Asaduzzaman, M. (2008) Governance in Practice: Decentralization and Peoples Participation in the Local Development of Bangladesh.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Tempera, Helsinki, Finland.
Asian Human Rights Commission-Hunger Alert Program Bangladesh. (2011) Government Food Subsidy Fails to Reach the Poor due to Corruption. Hunger Alert Case: AHRC-HAG-004-2011 on September 8, 2011. [Online URL:https://www.humanrights.asia/news/hunger-alerts/AHRC-HAG-004-2011] accessed on February 22, 2014.
Begum, A. (2005) Judicial Activism vs. Judicial Restraint: Bangladesh’s Experience with Women’s Rights with Reference to the Indian Supreme Court. Journal of Judicial Administration 14(4): 227.
Begum, A. (2007) Local Governance in Bangladesh: Towards a “Critical Mass” to Combat Discrimination against Women with Special Reference to India. Journal of Social Science 14(3): 263–64.
Begum, H. (2002) Manab Sampad: Bangladesher Nari (in Bengali, Human resource:
The Women in Bangladesh). Dhaka: Bangla Academy.
Boudreaux, R. (1991) The Great Conciliator. Los Angeles Times Magazine, January 6, pp. 9-13.
BRAC. (2007) BRAC Research Report 2007. [Online URL: https://www.bracresearch] accessed February 21, 2013
Burn, S. M. (2005) Women across Cultures: A Global Perspective, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chafetz, J. S. (1990) Gender Equity: An Integrated Theory of Stability and Change. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Chowdhury, N. (1994) Bangladesh: Gender Issues and Politics in a Patriarchy. In Women and Politics Worldwide, edited by B. J. Nelson and N. Chowdhury. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Chowdhury, N. J. (2005) Empowerment in Bangladesh: Some Concepts and Concerns. Empowerment 12:17-34.
Chowhdury, N., Begum, H. A., Islam, M. and Mahtab, N. (Eds.) (1994) Women and Politics. Dhaka: Women for Women
D’Amico, F. (1995) Women National Leaders. In Women in World Politics: An Introduction, edited by F. D’Amico and P. R. Beckman. London: Bergin and Garvey.
Dahlerup, D. and Nordlund, A. T. (2004) Gender Quotas: A Key to Equality? A Case Study of Iraq and Afghanistan. European Political Science 3:91-8.
Drage, J. (2001) Women in Local Government in Asia and The Pacific: A Comparative Analysis of Thirteen Countries, Report for the ESCAP, 2001: 34. [Online URL: http:www.citieslocalgovern ments.org/101a/upload/docs/womeninurbanlocalgovernment.(comparative analysis 13countries.pdf] accessed February 22, 2013.
Everett, J. (1993) Indira Gandhi and the Exercise of Power. In Women as National Leaders, edited by M. A. Genovese. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Forbes, G. (2002) Women of Character, Grit and Courage: The Reservation Debate in Historical Perspective. In Between Tradition, Counter Tradition and Heresy, edited by L. Sarker, K. Sharma and L. Kasturi. Delhi: Rainbow Publishers
Gani, M. S. and Sattar, M. G. (2004) Gender and Good Governance Issues in Local Government of Bangladesh: A Baseline Report. Dhaka: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Goetz, A. M. (1996) Disorganizing Gender: Women Development Agents in the State
and NGO Poverty-Reduction Programs in Bangladesh. In Women and the State: International Perspectives, edited by S. M. Rai. London: Taylor & Francis.
Goetz, A. M. (Ed.) (1997) Getting Institutional Right for Women in Development. London: Zed Books.
Halder, N. (2004) Female Representation in Parliament: A Case Study from Bangladesh. New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 6(1): 27-63.
Hamid, S. (1996) Why Women Count: Essays on Women and Development in Bangladesh. Dhaka: University press limited.
Haque, M. A. (2003) Gram Sarker Act: An Evaluation (in Bengali). Publish in the Daily Banglabazar on December 14, 2003.
Harris, C. (2001) Barriers Remain for Women. The Press 6 (July): 5.
Hasmi, T. I. (2000) Women and Islam in Bangladesh: Beyond Subjection and Tyranny.
New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.
Huq, J. (1995) Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh: The Rural Scenarios. In Empowerment of Women: Nairobi to Beijing (1985-1995), edited by R. Jahan, S. R.
Qadir, H. A. Begum and J. Huq, pp. 60-65. Dhaka: Women for women
Husain, S. A. (2002) Status of Women. In Bangladesh on the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century, edited by A. M. Chowdhury and F. Alam, pp. 230-243. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
International Union of Local Authorities (IULA). (1998) Women in Local Government. Sweden: IULA.
Inter-Parliamentary Union. (1987) Distribution of Seats between Men and Women in National Assemblies. Geneva: IPU.
Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2000) Politics: Women’s Rights. Geneva, Switzerland: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU).
Islam, M. S. (2000) Political Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh in World Perspective: An Analysis. In Rajshahi University Studies, Part C, Vol. 8. Rajshahi: University of Rajshahi.
Islam, N. (1998) An Inquiry into Primary Education in Bangladesh. Social Science Review 15(2): 65-78.
Jahan, R. (1972) Pakistan: Failure in National Integration. USA: Columbia University.
Jahangir, B. K. (1982) Rural Society, Power Structure and Class Practice. Dhaka: CSS, Dhaka University.
Jalalzai, F. (2004) Women Political Leaders: Past and Present. Women and Politics 26:85-108.
Kabeer, N. (1994) Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought. London: Verso.
Kabeer, N. (2002) We Don’t Do Credit: Nijera Kori, Social Mobilization, and the Collective Capabilities of the Poor in Rural Bangladesh. Dhaka: Ruby Enterprise.
Karmaker, R. (2006) New Steps Promoting Gender Equality Human Rights and Good Governance. Issue 5. Dhaka: Steps towards Development from NGO Anti-poverty Efforts. Development and Practice 5(2): 108–16.
Kenworthy, L. and Malami. M. (1999) Gender Inequality in Political Representation:
A Worldwide Comparative Analysis. Social Forces 78(1): 235-68.
Khan, M. M. (2008) Functioning of Local Government (Union Parishad), Research Report, Democracy Watch, USAID. Dhaka: Democratic Local Governance Program DLGP, TRI International.
Khan, M. M. (2011) Local Government in Bangladesh:Some Contemporary Issues
and Practices. Dhaka: A. H. Publishing House.
Khan, M. M. R. and Ara, F. (2006) Women, Participation and Empowerment in Local Government: Bangladesh Union Parishad Perspectives. Asian Affairs 29(1): 73-100.
Khan, Z. R. (2006) Are Women in Union Parishad Empowered? Women and Local Government in Bangladesh. Steps 2:3.
Khan, Z. R. (2009) LGSP- LIC study Of Women’s Participation in Local Development in the LIC Districts in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Local Government Division, GOB.
Khan, Z. R. and Mohsin A. (2008) Political Empowerment of Women in Union Parishads. Research Report for the Pathways of Women’s Empowerment Project. Dhaka: BRAC University, BDI.
Liswood, L. (1999) What Makes Great Leaders? [Online URL:https://www.mwa.govt.nz/pub/panui/9909/g_leaders.html] accessed on March 12, 2014.
Mahtab, N. (2007) Women in Bangladesh from Inequality to Empowerment. Dhaka:
AH Development Publishing House.
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1992a) Politics of Factionalism in Rural Bangladesh. IASSI Quarterly 10(4) .
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1992b) Patron-client Relations and Fictive Kinship in Bangladesh The Eastern Anthropologist (October-November).
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1993a) Socio-cultural Aspects of Rural Development in Bangladesh. Administrative Change 20(1 & 2).
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1993b) Power Relations in Rural Bangladesh. Politics, Administration and Change 21
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1994a) Traditionalism in Rural Development of Bangladesh. IBS Journal 17.
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1994b) The Issue of Participation in Development Planning at the Local Level in Rural Bangladesh. The Journal of Bangladesh Political Science Association.
Matland, R. E. (1998) Women’s Representation in National Legislatures:Developed and Developing Countries. Legislative Studies Quarterly 23(1): 109-125.
Miles, B. M. and Huberman, A. M. (1984) Qualitative Data Analysis-A Source Book for New Method. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Miles, B. M. and Huberman, A. M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis-An Expended Source Book, 2nd Ed., Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M. and Saldana, J. (2014) Qualitative Data Analysis:
A Methods Sourcebook, 3rd Ed., Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore: SAGE.
Mohammed, S. N. (2010) People’s Participation in Development Projects at Grassroots Level: A Case Study of Alampur and Jagannathpur Union Parishad. Unpublished Master Thesis, Master of Public Policy and Governance (MPPG), North South University, 2010.
Moore, G. and Shackman, G. (1996) Gender and Authority: A Cross-National Study. Social Science Quarterly 77(2): 273-88.
Moraes, D. (1980) Indira Gandhi. Boston: Little, Broun.
Mukhopadhyay, M. (2005) Decentralization and Gender Equity in South Asia: An Issue Paper. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.
Naz, F. (2006) Pathways to Women’s Empowerment in Bangladesh. Dhaka: A H Development Publishing House.
Panday, K. P. (2008) Representation without Participation: Quotas for Women in Bangladesh. International Political Science Review 29(4): 489–512. [Online URL:https://ips.sagepub.com/content/29/4/489.refs.html.] accessed on March 15, 2014.
Paxton, P. (1997) Women in National Legislatures: A Cross-National Analysis. Social Science Research 26(4): 442-64.
Paxton, P. and Hughes, M. M. (2007) Women, Politics and Power: A Global Perspective. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore: Pine Forge Press.
Qadir, R. S. (1993) Participation of Women in Politics and Administration. The Journal of Local Government. Dhaka: National Institute of Local Government.
Qadir, R. S. and Islam, M. (1987) Women Representation at the Union Level as Change Agent of Development. Dhaka: women for women.
Quddus, M. A., Begum, S. A., Zahid, S. J. A. and Biswas, T. K. (2001) Participation of
Women in Local Government Institution.Comilla: BARD.
Rahman, M. M. (2006a) Socio-economic and Political Profiles of the Women Leaders of
the Grassroots Level Local Governments in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India: A Comparative Perspective. Afro-Asian Journal of Rural Development. A Journal of AFRO-ASIAN Rural Development Organization 39(1).
Rahman, M. M. (2007) Union Parishad in Bangladesh: An Empirical Study on Background, Linkages, Roles and Performance of the Leaders. Journal of Public Administration 16(2).
Rahman, M. M. and Roy, M. K. (2005) Participation of Rural Women in Local Government: A Socio-Economic Analysis. Bangladesh Journal of Political Economy 22(1&2).
Rahman, M. M. and Roy, M. K. (2006) Participation of Women in Rural Local Government: A Socio-Economic Analysis. The Journal of Rural Development and Administration 36(1-4).
Rahman, M. M. and Sultana, F. N. (2005) Women in Local Government in Bangladesh
and West Bengal: A Comparative Perspective. Dhaka: FOWSIA, Bangladesh Freedom Foundation.
Rasiduzzaman, M. (1968) Politics and Administration in the Local Councils in East Pakistan. London: Oxford University Press.
Reyes, S. (2001) Women in Government. UNDP, Asia Pacific Gender Equality Network (APGEN): The Centre for Legislative Development.
Rule, W. (1994a) Women’s Under-Representation and Electoral Systems.
Rule, W. (1994b) Parliaments of, by, and for the People: Except for Women?. In Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspectives: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by W. Rule and J. F. Zimmerman, pp.15-30. London: Greenwood Press. Political Science and Politics 27(4): 689-92.
Saint-Germain, M. (1993) Women in Power in Nicaragua: Myth and Reality. In Women Heads of State, edited by M. Genovese, pp.70-102. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Shamim, I. (2001) Report on Towards Pro-Women and Child-Friendly Policing. Dhaka: Centre for Women and Children Studies (CWCS)
Shamim, I. and Nasreen, M. (2002) Gender and Local Governance: A New Discourse in Development. Journal of Social Studies 94/95 (October-March): 50-87.
Sharmin, S. and Aminuzzaman, S. (2006) Governance Mapping: Pro-poor Governance
in Rural Bangladesh. In Governance and Development: Bangladesh and Regional Experiences, edited by Salahuddin A, pp.165-177. Dhaka: Shravan Publishers
Siddiqee, M. S. H. (2008) Gender and Good Governance Issues in Local Government
of Bangladesh: A Baseline Report of Extension Phase.Dhaka: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Siddiqui, K. (1995) Local Government in Bangladesh. Dhaka: University Press Limited.
Sikder, T., Engali, J., Byrne, S. and Tabet, T. (2011) Socially Inclusive Local Governance-Case Study: Sharique-Bangladesh. Dhaka: Inter-cooperation, Institute of Development Studies, The Democratization and Local Government Network.
Smock, A. C. (1977) Bangladesh: A Struggle with Tradition and Poverty. In Women: Roles and Status in Eight Centuries, edited by J. Z. Giele and A.C.Smock, Chapter three. New York, London, Sydney, Toronto: John Wiley & Sons.
Solaiman, M. (1998) Participation of Women in Politics in Bangladesh.Paper presented for presentation at the CIRDAP: British Council Regional workshop on “Toward Gender
Equity: Poverty Rights and participation” held in CIRDAP HQs during 15-19 February,1998.
Stalker, P. (1995) A Fork in the Path: Human Development Choices for Bangladesh. Dhaka: United Nations.
Steps towards Development. (2003) Steps: Gender Equality, Human Rights and Governance 1(1): 7.
TIB (2008) National Household Survey 2007 on Corruption in Bangladesh. Dhaka: TIB.
[Online URL:https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/research/HHSurvey07full180608%5B2%5D.pdf] accessed on February 21, 2014.
Tripp, A. M. (n.d.) New Trends in Women’s Political Participation in Africa. [Online URL: https://www.democracy.standford.edu/seminar/AiliTripp.pdf.] accessed on February 21, 2013.
UNDP. (1994) UNDP’s 1994 Report on Human Development in Bangladesh: Empowerment of Women. Dhaka: UNDP.
UNDP. (2003) Sirajganj Local Governance Development Fund Project – Midterm Evaluation (Draft Report). Dhaka, January 2003.
United Nations. (2007) Indicators of Literacy.United Nations Statistics Division.
[Online URL:https://unstats.unorg/unsd/demographic/products/socind/literacy.htm.]
accessed on February 22, 2013.
World Food Program (WFP). (1998) Elected Women Members of Union Parishad: A Socio-Economic Study. Dhaka: WFP-Bangladesh.
Wikipedia. (2014) [Online URL:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_prime_ministers] accessed on 28 March, 2014.
Wilcox, C., Stark, B. and Thomas, S. (2003) Popular Support for Electing Women in Eastern Europe. In Women’s Access to Political Power in Post-communist Europe, edited by R. E. Matland and K. A. Montogomery, pp.43-62. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Wollack, K. (2010) Women as Agents of Change: Advancing the Role of Women in Politics and Civil Society. An Statement Given at the House Committee on Foreign Affairs.
Women for Women. (1992) Women in Politics and Decision Making in the Late Twentieth Century: A United Nations Study. Prepared by the Division for the Advancement of Women, pp.xii-xiii.
Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2001b) Technical Assistance for Gender and Governance Issues in Local Government. Dhaka: ADB.
Ahmed, T. and Quader, A. (1993) Local Governments at the Grassroots: Some Recommendation for Structural Recommendation. Comilla: BARD.
Alam, A. and Karim, K. M. R. (2007) Women Empowerment at Union Parishad Level: A Case Study in Selected Unions of Jessore District. Empowerment 14:1-16.
Alam, B. A. and Begum, R. A. (1974) Violence and Union Parishad Leadership: A Few Statistics. Local Government Quarterly 8(1-4).
Amin, R. and Akhter, S. (2005) Women Participation in Local Government and Social Integration in Rural Bangladesh. Paper presented in Workshop on Enlarging Citizen Participation and Increasing Local Autonomy in Achieving Societal Harmony held in Beijing, PRC by Network of Asia-Pacific Schools and Institutes of Public Administration and Governance (NAPSIPAG) Annual Conference 2005, 5-7 December 2005.
Aminuzzaman, S. M. (2011) Local Governance Innovations: An Assessment of the Challenges for Mainstreaming Local Governance Support Program.In Understanding Governance and Public Policy in Bangladesh, edited by I. Jamil, S. M. Aminuzzaman, S. Askvik, and S. M. H. Tawfique. North South University, Bangladesh: Master in Public Policy and Governance Program.
Anderson, N. F. (1993) Benzir Bhutto and dynasties: Her Father’s Daughter, Her People’s Sister. In Women as National Leaders, M. A. Genovese. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Asaduzzaman, M. (2008) Governance in Practice: Decentralization and Peoples Participation in the Local Development of Bangladesh.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Tempera, Helsinki, Finland.
Asian Human Rights Commission-Hunger Alert Program Bangladesh. (2011) Government Food Subsidy Fails to Reach the Poor due to Corruption. Hunger Alert Case: AHRC-HAG-004-2011 on September 8, 2011. [Online URL:https://www.humanrights.asia/news/hunger-alerts/AHRC-HAG-004-2011] accessed on February 22, 2014.
Begum, A. (2005) Judicial Activism vs. Judicial Restraint: Bangladesh’s Experience with Women’s Rights with Reference to the Indian Supreme Court. Journal of Judicial Administration 14(4): 227.
Begum, A. (2007) Local Governance in Bangladesh: Towards a “Critical Mass” to Combat Discrimination against Women with Special Reference to India. Journal of Social Science 14(3): 263–64.
Begum, H. (2002) Manab Sampad: Bangladesher Nari (in Bengali, Human resource:
The Women in Bangladesh). Dhaka: Bangla Academy.
Boudreaux, R. (1991) The Great Conciliator. Los Angeles Times Magazine, January 6, pp. 9-13.
BRAC. (2007) BRAC Research Report 2007. [Online URL: https://www.bracresearch] accessed February 21, 2013
Burn, S. M. (2005) Women across Cultures: A Global Perspective, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chafetz, J. S. (1990) Gender Equity: An Integrated Theory of Stability and Change. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Chowdhury, N. (1994) Bangladesh: Gender Issues and Politics in a Patriarchy. In Women and Politics Worldwide, edited by B. J. Nelson and N. Chowdhury. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Chowdhury, N. J. (2005) Empowerment in Bangladesh: Some Concepts and Concerns. Empowerment 12:17-34.
Chowhdury, N., Begum, H. A., Islam, M. and Mahtab, N. (Eds.) (1994) Women and Politics. Dhaka: Women for Women
D’Amico, F. (1995) Women National Leaders. In Women in World Politics: An Introduction, edited by F. D’Amico and P. R. Beckman. London: Bergin and Garvey.
Dahlerup, D. and Nordlund, A. T. (2004) Gender Quotas: A Key to Equality? A Case Study of Iraq and Afghanistan. European Political Science 3:91-8.
Drage, J. (2001) Women in Local Government in Asia and The Pacific: A Comparative Analysis of Thirteen Countries, Report for the ESCAP, 2001: 34. [Online URL: http:www.citieslocalgovern ments.org/101a/upload/docs/womeninurbanlocalgovernment.(comparative analysis 13countries.pdf] accessed February 22, 2013.
Everett, J. (1993) Indira Gandhi and the Exercise of Power. In Women as National Leaders, edited by M. A. Genovese. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Forbes, G. (2002) Women of Character, Grit and Courage: The Reservation Debate in Historical Perspective. In Between Tradition, Counter Tradition and Heresy, edited by L. Sarker, K. Sharma and L. Kasturi. Delhi: Rainbow Publishers
Gani, M. S. and Sattar, M. G. (2004) Gender and Good Governance Issues in Local Government of Bangladesh: A Baseline Report. Dhaka: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Goetz, A. M. (1996) Disorganizing Gender: Women Development Agents in the State
and NGO Poverty-Reduction Programs in Bangladesh. In Women and the State: International Perspectives, edited by S. M. Rai. London: Taylor & Francis.
Goetz, A. M. (Ed.) (1997) Getting Institutional Right for Women in Development. London: Zed Books.
Halder, N. (2004) Female Representation in Parliament: A Case Study from Bangladesh. New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 6(1): 27-63.
Hamid, S. (1996) Why Women Count: Essays on Women and Development in Bangladesh. Dhaka: University press limited.
Haque, M. A. (2003) Gram Sarker Act: An Evaluation (in Bengali). Publish in the Daily Banglabazar on December 14, 2003.
Harris, C. (2001) Barriers Remain for Women. The Press 6 (July): 5.
Hasmi, T. I. (2000) Women and Islam in Bangladesh: Beyond Subjection and Tyranny.
New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.
Huq, J. (1995) Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh: The Rural Scenarios. In Empowerment of Women: Nairobi to Beijing (1985-1995), edited by R. Jahan, S. R.
Qadir, H. A. Begum and J. Huq, pp. 60-65. Dhaka: Women for women
Husain, S. A. (2002) Status of Women. In Bangladesh on the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century, edited by A. M. Chowdhury and F. Alam, pp. 230-243. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
International Union of Local Authorities (IULA). (1998) Women in Local Government. Sweden: IULA.
Inter-Parliamentary Union. (1987) Distribution of Seats between Men and Women in National Assemblies. Geneva: IPU.
Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2000) Politics: Women’s Rights. Geneva, Switzerland: Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU).
Islam, M. S. (2000) Political Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh in World Perspective: An Analysis. In Rajshahi University Studies, Part C, Vol. 8. Rajshahi: University of Rajshahi.
Islam, N. (1998) An Inquiry into Primary Education in Bangladesh. Social Science Review 15(2): 65-78.
Jahan, R. (1972) Pakistan: Failure in National Integration. USA: Columbia University.
Jahangir, B. K. (1982) Rural Society, Power Structure and Class Practice. Dhaka: CSS, Dhaka University.
Jalalzai, F. (2004) Women Political Leaders: Past and Present. Women and Politics 26:85-108.
Kabeer, N. (1994) Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought. London: Verso.
Kabeer, N. (2002) We Don’t Do Credit: Nijera Kori, Social Mobilization, and the Collective Capabilities of the Poor in Rural Bangladesh. Dhaka: Ruby Enterprise.
Karmaker, R. (2006) New Steps Promoting Gender Equality Human Rights and Good Governance. Issue 5. Dhaka: Steps towards Development from NGO Anti-poverty Efforts. Development and Practice 5(2): 108–16.
Kenworthy, L. and Malami. M. (1999) Gender Inequality in Political Representation:
A Worldwide Comparative Analysis. Social Forces 78(1): 235-68.
Khan, M. M. (2008) Functioning of Local Government (Union Parishad), Research Report, Democracy Watch, USAID. Dhaka: Democratic Local Governance Program DLGP, TRI International.
Khan, M. M. (2011) Local Government in Bangladesh:Some Contemporary Issues
and Practices. Dhaka: A. H. Publishing House.
Khan, M. M. R. and Ara, F. (2006) Women, Participation and Empowerment in Local Government: Bangladesh Union Parishad Perspectives. Asian Affairs 29(1): 73-100.
Khan, Z. R. (2006) Are Women in Union Parishad Empowered? Women and Local Government in Bangladesh. Steps 2:3.
Khan, Z. R. (2009) LGSP- LIC study Of Women’s Participation in Local Development in the LIC Districts in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Local Government Division, GOB.
Khan, Z. R. and Mohsin A. (2008) Political Empowerment of Women in Union Parishads. Research Report for the Pathways of Women’s Empowerment Project. Dhaka: BRAC University, BDI.
Liswood, L. (1999) What Makes Great Leaders? [Online URL:https://www.mwa.govt.nz/pub/panui/9909/g_leaders.html] accessed on March 12, 2014.
Mahtab, N. (2007) Women in Bangladesh from Inequality to Empowerment. Dhaka:
AH Development Publishing House.
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1992a) Politics of Factionalism in Rural Bangladesh. IASSI Quarterly 10(4) .
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1992b) Patron-client Relations and Fictive Kinship in Bangladesh The Eastern Anthropologist (October-November).
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1993a) Socio-cultural Aspects of Rural Development in Bangladesh. Administrative Change 20(1 & 2).
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1993b) Power Relations in Rural Bangladesh. Politics, Administration and Change 21
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1994a) Traditionalism in Rural Development of Bangladesh. IBS Journal 17.
Mashreque, M. S. and Amin, M. R. (1994b) The Issue of Participation in Development Planning at the Local Level in Rural Bangladesh. The Journal of Bangladesh Political Science Association.
Matland, R. E. (1998) Women’s Representation in National Legislatures:Developed and Developing Countries. Legislative Studies Quarterly 23(1): 109-125.
Miles, B. M. and Huberman, A. M. (1984) Qualitative Data Analysis-A Source Book for New Method. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Miles, B. M. and Huberman, A. M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis-An Expended Source Book, 2nd Ed., Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M. and Saldana, J. (2014) Qualitative Data Analysis:
A Methods Sourcebook, 3rd Ed., Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore: SAGE.
Mohammed, S. N. (2010) People’s Participation in Development Projects at Grassroots Level: A Case Study of Alampur and Jagannathpur Union Parishad. Unpublished Master Thesis, Master of Public Policy and Governance (MPPG), North South University, 2010.
Moore, G. and Shackman, G. (1996) Gender and Authority: A Cross-National Study. Social Science Quarterly 77(2): 273-88.
Moraes, D. (1980) Indira Gandhi. Boston: Little, Broun.
Mukhopadhyay, M. (2005) Decentralization and Gender Equity in South Asia: An Issue Paper. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.
Naz, F. (2006) Pathways to Women’s Empowerment in Bangladesh. Dhaka: A H Development Publishing House.
Panday, K. P. (2008) Representation without Participation: Quotas for Women in Bangladesh. International Political Science Review 29(4): 489–512. [Online URL:https://ips.sagepub.com/content/29/4/489.refs.html.] accessed on March 15, 2014.
Paxton, P. (1997) Women in National Legislatures: A Cross-National Analysis. Social Science Research 26(4): 442-64.
Paxton, P. and Hughes, M. M. (2007) Women, Politics and Power: A Global Perspective. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore: Pine Forge Press.
Qadir, R. S. (1993) Participation of Women in Politics and Administration. The Journal of Local Government. Dhaka: National Institute of Local Government.
Qadir, R. S. and Islam, M. (1987) Women Representation at the Union Level as Change Agent of Development. Dhaka: women for women.
Quddus, M. A., Begum, S. A., Zahid, S. J. A. and Biswas, T. K. (2001) Participation of
Women in Local Government Institution.Comilla: BARD.
Rahman, M. M. (2006a) Socio-economic and Political Profiles of the Women Leaders of
the Grassroots Level Local Governments in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India: A Comparative Perspective. Afro-Asian Journal of Rural Development. A Journal of AFRO-ASIAN Rural Development Organization 39(1).
Rahman, M. M. (2007) Union Parishad in Bangladesh: An Empirical Study on Background, Linkages, Roles and Performance of the Leaders. Journal of Public Administration 16(2).
Rahman, M. M. and Roy, M. K. (2005) Participation of Rural Women in Local Government: A Socio-Economic Analysis. Bangladesh Journal of Political Economy 22(1&2).
Rahman, M. M. and Roy, M. K. (2006) Participation of Women in Rural Local Government: A Socio-Economic Analysis. The Journal of Rural Development and Administration 36(1-4).
Rahman, M. M. and Sultana, F. N. (2005) Women in Local Government in Bangladesh
and West Bengal: A Comparative Perspective. Dhaka: FOWSIA, Bangladesh Freedom Foundation.
Rasiduzzaman, M. (1968) Politics and Administration in the Local Councils in East Pakistan. London: Oxford University Press.
Reyes, S. (2001) Women in Government. UNDP, Asia Pacific Gender Equality Network (APGEN): The Centre for Legislative Development.
Rule, W. (1994a) Women’s Under-Representation and Electoral Systems.
Rule, W. (1994b) Parliaments of, by, and for the People: Except for Women?. In Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspectives: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by W. Rule and J. F. Zimmerman, pp.15-30. London: Greenwood Press. Political Science and Politics 27(4): 689-92.
Saint-Germain, M. (1993) Women in Power in Nicaragua: Myth and Reality. In Women Heads of State, edited by M. Genovese, pp.70-102. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Shamim, I. (2001) Report on Towards Pro-Women and Child-Friendly Policing. Dhaka: Centre for Women and Children Studies (CWCS)
Shamim, I. and Nasreen, M. (2002) Gender and Local Governance: A New Discourse in Development. Journal of Social Studies 94/95 (October-March): 50-87.
Sharmin, S. and Aminuzzaman, S. (2006) Governance Mapping: Pro-poor Governance
in Rural Bangladesh. In Governance and Development: Bangladesh and Regional Experiences, edited by Salahuddin A, pp.165-177. Dhaka: Shravan Publishers
Siddiqee, M. S. H. (2008) Gender and Good Governance Issues in Local Government
of Bangladesh: A Baseline Report of Extension Phase.Dhaka: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Siddiqui, K. (1995) Local Government in Bangladesh. Dhaka: University Press Limited.
Sikder, T., Engali, J., Byrne, S. and Tabet, T. (2011) Socially Inclusive Local Governance-Case Study: Sharique-Bangladesh. Dhaka: Inter-cooperation, Institute of Development Studies, The Democratization and Local Government Network.
Smock, A. C. (1977) Bangladesh: A Struggle with Tradition and Poverty. In Women: Roles and Status in Eight Centuries, edited by J. Z. Giele and A.C.Smock, Chapter three. New York, London, Sydney, Toronto: John Wiley & Sons.
Solaiman, M. (1998) Participation of Women in Politics in Bangladesh.Paper presented for presentation at the CIRDAP: British Council Regional workshop on “Toward Gender
Equity: Poverty Rights and participation” held in CIRDAP HQs during 15-19 February,1998.
Stalker, P. (1995) A Fork in the Path: Human Development Choices for Bangladesh. Dhaka: United Nations.
Steps towards Development. (2003) Steps: Gender Equality, Human Rights and Governance 1(1): 7.
TIB (2008) National Household Survey 2007 on Corruption in Bangladesh. Dhaka: TIB.
[Online URL:https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/research/HHSurvey07full180608%5B2%5D.pdf] accessed on February 21, 2014.
Tripp, A. M. (n.d.) New Trends in Women’s Political Participation in Africa. [Online URL: https://www.democracy.standford.edu/seminar/AiliTripp.pdf.] accessed on February 21, 2013.
UNDP. (1994) UNDP’s 1994 Report on Human Development in Bangladesh: Empowerment of Women. Dhaka: UNDP.
UNDP. (2003) Sirajganj Local Governance Development Fund Project – Midterm Evaluation (Draft Report). Dhaka, January 2003.
United Nations. (2007) Indicators of Literacy.United Nations Statistics Division.
[Online URL:https://unstats.unorg/unsd/demographic/products/socind/literacy.htm.]
accessed on February 22, 2013.
World Food Program (WFP). (1998) Elected Women Members of Union Parishad: A Socio-Economic Study. Dhaka: WFP-Bangladesh.
Wikipedia. (2014) [Online URL:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_prime_ministers] accessed on 28 March, 2014.
Wilcox, C., Stark, B. and Thomas, S. (2003) Popular Support for Electing Women in Eastern Europe. In Women’s Access to Political Power in Post-communist Europe, edited by R. E. Matland and K. A. Montogomery, pp.43-62. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Wollack, K. (2010) Women as Agents of Change: Advancing the Role of Women in Politics and Civil Society. An Statement Given at the House Committee on Foreign Affairs.
Women for Women. (1992) Women in Politics and Decision Making in the Late Twentieth Century: A United Nations Study. Prepared by the Division for the Advancement of Women, pp.xii-xiii.