Socio-Economic Constraints of Home Modification to Mitigate the Risk of Falls among the Elderly in the Diverse Regions of Thailand
Article Sidebar
Main Article Content
Abstract
This research highlights the inequality arising from socio-economic constraints in implementing home modifications to mitigate fall risks among the elderly. The study provides significant evidence of the complex association between low socio-economic status (SES) and its limitations in adopting fall prevention strategies, particularly in rural areas such as northern and northeastern Thailand. The SES related to home modifications for mitigating fall risks among the elderly was assessed through the three factors of house conditions, styles, and amenities. Houses in rural and urban areas were compared to highlight disparities in fall risk and the capacity to implement modifications. This research shows that fall risk in rural areas was significantly higher than in urban areas (p = 0.03), and SES in rural areas such as the north and the northeast was significantly lower than in more urbanised areas (p < 0.00). Furthermore, all three SES factors show a significant relationship with the incidence of falls (p < 0.00). Home modification construction cost can be categorised into three levels based on cost and scope: minor (24,000 Baht or 750 USD in 2021), moderate (30,500 Baht or 953 USD in 2021), and major (47,000 Baht or 1,469 USD in 2021). Major modifications as part of the research project covering structural renovations included reinforcement and replacement which accounted for 41% of the total construction cost, while costs for universal design equipment constituted 34% of the total construction cost. A key contribution of this study is the identification and quantification of specific socio-economic constraints that limit home modifications in rural areas of Thailand. The most significant constraints include financial limitations, poor housing conditions, and limited access to technical knowledge for modifying specific local housing conditions and styles. This research frames these constraints as critical barriers to achieving safe living environments for the elderly, particularly before universal design can even be applied. By offering a classification of home modification needs linked to socio-economic capacity and advocating for an increase in current government construction subsidies, —including labour costs—by at least 10%, the study provides a practical framework for assessing readiness and challenges in real-world aging in place settings.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
All material is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0) License, unless otherwise stated. As such, authors are free to share, copy, and redistribute the material in any medium or format. The authors must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. The authors may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. The authors may not use the material for commercial purposes. If the authors remix, transform, or build upon the material, they may not distribute the modified material, unless permission is obtained from JARS. Final, accepted versions of the paper may be posted on third party repositories, provided appropriate acknowledgement to the original source is clearly noted.
References
Aekplakorn, W. (Ed.) (2014). Report: Kānsamrūat sukkhaphāp prachāchon Thai dōy kān trūat rāngkāi khrang thī 5 Phō̜Sō̜ 2557 [Thai citizen health survey by the 5th physical examination BE.2014]. Health System Research Institute (HSRI). https://kb.hsri.or.th/dspace/handle/11228/4626?locale-attribute=th
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/074959789190020T DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
Cannon, T. (2017). Social vulnerability and environmental hazards. In D. Richardson (Ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the Earth , Environment and Technology (pp. 1-8), John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0845 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0845
Chacko, T. V., Thangaraj, P., & Muhammad, G. M. (2017). How fall-safe is the housing for the elderly in rural areas?: A cross sectional study using fall prevention screening checklist. Journal of The Indian Academy of Geriatrics, 13(3), 124–130. https://journals.lww.com/jiag/pages/default.aspx DOI: https://doi.org/10.35262/jiag.v13i3.124-130
Chaono, S., & Khunkongme, P. (2022a). Patčhai thī mī phon tō̜ phāwa yong hoklom khō̜ng phūsūngʻāyu nai khēt rapphitchō̜p khlinik mō̜ khrō̜pkhrūa Tāk sin ʻAmphœ̄ Mư̄ang čhangwat Tāk [A factors affecting risk of falls of elderly in responsible area of Taksin Primary Care Cluster, Mueang District, Tak Province]. Lanna Public Health Journal, 18(1), 31–44. https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/LPHJ/article/view/257230
Chaono, S., & Khunkongme, P. (2022b). A factors affecting risk of falls of elderly in responsible area of Taksin Primary Care Cluster, Mueang District, Tak Province. Lanna Public Health Journal, 18(1), 31–44. https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/LPHJ/article/view/257230
Cheng, M.-H., & Chang, S.-F. (2017). Frailty as a risk factor for falls among community dwelling people: evidence from a meta-analysis. Journal of Nursing Scholarship., 49(5), 529–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnu.12322 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jnu.12322
Chindapol, S. (2025). Influence of sociocultural aspects and home modification on fall risks mitigation among the elderly in Thailand. Nakhara: Journal of Environmental Design and Planning, 24(1), Article 501. https://doi.org/10.54028/NJ202524501 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54028/NJ202524501
Chindapol, S., & Arkarapotiwong, P. (2023). Reducing the risk of falls in homes for older adults in Thailand. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences., 44(4), 1155–1166. https://doi.org/10.34044/j.kjss.2023.44.4.20 DOI: https://doi.org/10.34044/j.kjss.2023.44.4.20
Cho, H., Seol, S. J., Yoon, D. H., Kim, M. J., Choi, B. Y., & Kim, T. (2013). Disparity in the fear of falling between urban and rural residents in relation with socio-economic variables, health issues, and functional independency. Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine, 37(6), 848-861. https://doi.org/10.5535%2Farm.2013.37.6.848 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5535/arm.2013.37.6.848
Chuanwan, S., Thianlai, K., Churat, W., Thueanklin, P., & Somta, S. (2022). Kān khao thưng rabop bō̜rikān thāng sangkhom khō̜ng prachākō̜n nai khrūarư̄an kō̜n wai sūng ʻāyu læ phū sūng ʻāyu thī mī rūpbǣp kān yū ʻāsai tāng kan phư̄a pai sū nǣo thāng kān sanap sanun kān bō̜rikān thī mo̜ som [Project on access to social services among pre-elderly and elderly populations with different living arrangements: Towards appropriate service support approaches]. Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University. https://ipsr.mahidol.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Research-brief-EAP-updated_compressed.pdf
Clemson, L., Mackenzie, L., Ballinger, C., Close, J. C. T., & & Cumming, R. G. (2008). Environmental interventions to prevent falls in community-dwelling older people: A meta-analysis of randomized trials. Journal of Aging and Health, 20(8), 954-971. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264308324672 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264308324672
Cook, C. C.., Yearns, M. H., & Martin, P. (2005). Aging in place: Home modifications among rural and urban elderly. Housing and Society, 32(1), 85–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/08882746.2005.11430515 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08882746.2005.11430515
Cutter, S. L., Boruff, B. J., & Shirley, W. L. (2003). Social vulnerability to environmental hazards. Social Science Quarterly, 84(2), 242–261. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6237.8402002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6237.8402002
Digital Government Development Agency (Public Organization) (DGA). (2022). čhamnūan prachākō̜n nai prathēt Thai yǣk tām phư̄nthī [Population in Thailand divided by area]. https://data.go.th/dataset/statbyyear
Department of Older Persons (DOP). (2022, May 2). sarup phon khrōngkān prap saphāp wǣtlō̜m læ sing nūai khwām sadūak khō̜ng phūsūngʻāyu hai mo̜som læ plō̜tphai pī 2560-2565 [Summary of the project results to improve the environment and facilities for the elderly to be suitable and safe 2017 - 2022]. https://www.dop.go.th/th/implementaion/5/11/1437
Englander, F., Hodson, T. J., & Terregrossa, R. A. (1996). Economic dimensions of slip and fall injuries. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 41(5), 733–746. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8789837/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS13991J
Fang, F., & Yang, X. (2023). Socioeconomic status, cultural values, and elderly care: An examination of elderly care preference in OECD countries. Aging and Health Research, 3(3), 100153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ahr.2023.100153 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ahr.2023.100153
Fong, J. H., & Feng, Q. (2021). Toileting disability among older adults in China and role of environmental factors. Journal of Aging Health, 33(10), 852-864. https://doi.org/10.1177/08982643211015026 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/08982643211015026
Fellner, C. (2019, April 7). Time bomb: Two new cases as NSW faces worst measles outbreak in years. The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/time-bomb-two-new-cases-as-nsw-faces-worst-measles-outbreak-in-years-20190407-p51bqy.html
Gell, N. M., Brown, H., Karlsson, L., Peters, D. M., & Mroz, T. M. (2020). Bathroom modifications, clutter, and tripping hazards: Prevalence and changes after incident falls in community-dwelling older adults. Journal of Aging and Health, 32(10), 1636–1644. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0898264320949773 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264320949773
Gill, T. M., Williams, C. S., & Tinetti, M. E. (2000). Environmental hazards and the risk of nonsyncopal falls in the homes of community-living older persons. Medical Care, 38(12), 1174–1183. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3767995 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00005650-200012000-00004
Glass, A. S., Bagga, H. S., Tasian, G. E., McGeady, J. B., McCulloch, C. E., Blaschko, S. D., McAninch, J. W., & Breyer, B. N. (2013). No small slam: Increasing incidents of genitourinary injury from toilets and toilet seats. BJU International, 112(3), 398-403. https://doi.org/10.1111/bju.12173 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bju.12173
Hongthong, D., Somrongthong, R., & Ward, P. (2015). Factors influencing the quality of life (Qol) among Thai older people in a rural area of Thailand. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 44(4), 479–485. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26056666/
Horton, K., & Dickinson, A. (2011). The role of culture and diversity in the prevention of falls among older Chinese people. Canadian Journal on Aging, 30(1), 57–66. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21401976/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0714980810000826
Hussain, M. R., Haron, N. A., Effendi, R. A. A. R. A., Rokhani, F., Ahmad, S. A., Ashari, A., Hassan, M. K., bin Dolah, M. S., & Ramli, S. (2023). Design requirement of bathroom and toilet for the elderly in Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology, 31(4), 1861–1879. https://doi.org/10.47836/pjst.31.4.15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.47836/pjst.31.4.15
Iamtrakul, P., & Chayphong, S. (2021). Aging and environment in role of rural older adults. GMSARN International Journal, 15(3), 236–243. https://gmsarnjournal.com/home/journal-vol-15-no-3/
Iamtrakul, P., & Chayphong, S. (2022). Exploring the influencing factors on living alone and social isolation among older adults in rural areas of Thailand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14572. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114572 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114572
Iamtrakul, P., Chayphong, S., Jomnonkwao, S., & Ratanavaraha, V. (2021). The association of falls risk in older adults and their living environment: A case study of rural area, Thailand. Sustainability, 13(24), 13756. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132413756 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su132413756
Jakimovski, J. (2010). The socio-demographic context of rural poverty. Eastern European Countryside, 16, 131-156. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10130-010-0007-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/v10130-010-0007-3
Joseph, A., Kumar, D., & Bagavandas, M. (2019). A review of epidemiology of fall among elderly in India. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 44(2), 166–168. https://research.ebsco.com/c/lykl4z/viewer/pdf/gbt5e3rqjr?route=details DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/ijcm.IJCM_201_18
Kantow, S., Seangpraw, K., Ong-Artborirak, P., Tonchoy, P., Auttama, N., Bootsikeaw, S., & Choowanthanapakorn, M. (2021). Risk factors associated with fall awareness, falls, and quality of life among ethnic minority older adults in Upper Northern Thailand. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 2(16), 1777-1788. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34629869/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S328912
Karlin, N. J. (2023). Divergent experiences reported by rural and frontier older adults aging in place. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 36(2), 262–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959420.2023.2197562 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08959420.2023.2197562
Keall, M. D., Tupara, H., Pierse, N., Wilkie, M., Baker, M. G., Howden-Chapman, P., & Cunningham, C. (2021). Home modifications to prevent home fall injuries in houses with Māori occupants (MHIPI): A randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Public Health, 6(9), e631-e640. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00135-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00135-3
Kim, C., & Park, Y.-S. (2000). Comparing health-related behaviors, food behaviors, and the nutrient adequacy ratio of rural elderly by single-elderly families vs extended families. Korean Journal of Community Nutrition, 5(2S), 307-315. https://www.kjcn.or.kr/journal/view.php?number=1553
Kim, I. S., & Kim, J. (2023). Why do elderly households not want to modify their homes? Focusing on Seoul. Korean Association for Housing Policy Studies, 31(3), 33–62. https://scholar.kyobobook.co.kr/article/detail/4010049771667 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24957/hsr.2023.31.3.33
Knurowski, T., van Dijk, J. P., Geckova, A. M., Brzyski, P., Tobiasz-Adamczyk, B., & van den Heuvel, W. J. A. (2005). Socio-economic health differences among the elderly population in Krakow, Poland. Sozial- und Präventivmedizin, 50(3), 177–185. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00038-005-2051-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-005-2051-8
Krishnan, R. H. (2019). A review on squat-assist devices to aid elderly with lower limb difficulties in toileting to tackle constipation. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine, 233(4), 464-475. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954411919838644 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0954411919838644
Khaosod Online. (2025, March 6). Khrō̜pkhrūa cho̜k yā lān chāi 6 khūap thūk phanang pūn thap sīa chīwit 2 sop [Family in shock as grandmother and 6-year-old grandson crushed to death by collapsing concrete wall]. https://www.khaosod.co.th/around-thailand/news_9661867
Laheri, V. K., Lim, W. M., Arya, P. K., & Kumar, S. (2024). A multidimensional lens of environmental consciousness: towards an environmentally conscious theory of planned behavior. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 41(3), 281–297. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-03-2023-5875 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-03-2023-5875
Letts, L., Moreland, J., Richardson, J., Coman, L., Edwards, M., Ginis, K. M., Wilkins, S., & Wishart, L. (2010). The physical environment as a fall risk factor in older adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis of cross-sectional and cohort studies. Australian occupational therapy journal, 57(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1630.2009.00787.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1630.2009.00787.x
Lin, H., Guo, Y., Di, Q., Zheng, Y., Kowal, P., Xiao, J., Liu, T., Li, X., Zeng, W., Howard, S. W., Nelson, E. J., Qian, Z., Ma, W., & Wu, F. (2017). Ambient PM2.5 and stroke: Effect modifiers and population attributable risk in six low- and middle-income countries. Stroke, 48(6), 1191–1197. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.015739 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.015739
Lanna Magazine on Cloud. (2022, November 29). Watthanatham kān nō̜n lān nā [Lanna sleeping culture]. https://accl.cmu.ac.th/Knowledge/details/2799
Mathieson, K. M., Kronenfeld, J. J., & Keith, V. M. (2002). Maintaining functional independence in elderly adults: The roles of health status and financial resources in predicting home modifications and use of mobility equipment. The Gerontologist, 42(1), 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/42.1.24 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/42.1.24
Morris, M. E., Webster, K., Jones, C., Hill, A.-M., Haines, T., McPhail, S., Kiegaldie, D., Slade, S., Jazayeri, D., Heng, H., Shorr, R., Carey, L., Barker, A., & Cameron, I. (2022). Interventions to reduce falls in hospitals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Age and Ageing, 51(5), afac077. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afac077 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afac077
Nanthamongkolchai, S. (2021). Khrō̜pkhrūa kap kān songsœ̄m sukkhaphāp phūsūngʻāyu [Family and the elderly health support]. Emotion art.
National Emergency Medical Institute. (2019). Rāingān sathiti kān phǣt chukchœ̄n [Emergency illness statistics of the elderly 2016-2019: Knowledge and archive system on emergency medicine]. https://ws.niems.go.th/ITEMS_DWH/
Ng, B. P., Lu, J., Tiu, G. F., Thiamwong, L., & Zhong, Y. Y. (2021). Bathroom modifications among community-dwelling older adults who experience falls in the United States: A cross-sectional study. Health & Social Care in the Community, 30(1), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13398 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13398
Nimmol, K., Pongthana, P., Prasirtsuk, P., & Uratanamanee, S. (2025). Guidelines for physical environment and facilities to serve elderly tourists in riverside bungalows: A case study of Samut Songkhram Province. Journal of Architectural/Planning Research and Studies (JARS), 22(2), 273627. https://doi.org/10.56261/jars.v22.273627 DOI: https://doi.org/10.56261/jars.v22.273627
Nitbongkoch, W. (1998). Housing needs of the elderly in Klongtoey district [Master’s Thesis, Chulalongkorn University]. Chulalongkorn University Intellectual Repository. https://cuir.car.chula.ac.th/handle/123456789/69105
Ong, M. F., Soh, K. L., Saimaon, R., Myint, W. W., Pawi, S., & Saidi, H. I. (2022). Falls risk screening tools intended to reduce fall risk among independent community-dwelling older adults: A systematic review. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 29(4), e13083. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.13083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.13083
Phulkerd, S., & Satchanawakul, N. (2020). Thī yū ʻāsai thī mo̜som samrap phūsūngʻāyu nai sangkhom Thai : nǣokhit phatthanākān læ mummō̜ng chœ̄ng nayōbāi [Appropriate housing for the elderly in Thai society: Concepts, development, and policy perspectives]. Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University. https://ipsr.mahidol.ac.th/ipsrbeta/FileUpload/PDF/Report-File-616.pdf
Rand, S., Smith, N., Jones, K., Dargan, A., & Hogan, H. (2011). Measuring safety in older adult care homes: a scoping review of the international literature. BMJ Open, 11, e043206. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043206 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043206
Rongmuang, D., Nakchatri, C., Tongdee, J., & Sombutboon, J. (2016). Incidence and factors associated with fall among the community-dwelling elderly, Suratthani. Journal of Phrapokklao Nursing College, 27(Suppl.1), 123–138. https://he01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/pnc/article/view/117699
Sabatini, S. N., Tambunan, L., & Kusuma, H. E. (2016). Elderly house environmental fall risk factors in Yogyakarta. In The 11th International Symposium on Architectural Interchange in Asia (pp. 485–488). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hanson-E-Kusuma/publication/316877305_Elderly_House_Environmental_Fall_Risk_Factors_in_Yogyakarta/links/591565364585152e199e0dd3/Elderly-House-Environmental-Fall-Risk-Factors-in-Yogyakarta.pdf
Schoberer, D., Breimaier, H. E., Mandl, M., Halfens, R. J. G., & Lohrmann, C. (2016). Involving the consumers: An exploration of users' and caregivers' needs and expectations on a fall prevention brochure: A qualitative study. Geriatric Nursing, 37(3), 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2016.02.011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2016.02.011
Seangpraw, K., & Ong-Artborirak, P. (2020). Knowledge and behaviors toward health care for elderly patients with hypertension, and quality of life among informal caregivers in Northern Thailand. Journal of multidisciplinary healthcare, 13, 1771–1780. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S284886 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S284886
Selanon, P., Puggioni, F., Dejnirattisai, S., & Rutchamart, A. (2022). Towards inclusive and accessible parks in Pathum Thani Province, Thailand. City, Territory and Architecture, 9(24), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-022-00169-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-022-00169-y
Shahraki, A. A. (2022). Renovation programs in old and inefficient neighborhoods of cities with case studies. City, Territory and Architecture, 9(28), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-022-00174-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-022-00174-1
Shin, K. R., Byeon, Y. S., Kang, Y., & Oak, J. (2008). A study on physical symptom, activity of daily living, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in the community-dwelling older adults. Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi, 38(3), 437–444. https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2008.38.3.437 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2008.38.3.437
Sirimuangmoon K, & Saicharoent C. (2016). Beliefs and spatial organization of Karen houses in Prabaht-Huaytom Village, Nasai Sub-district, Li District, Lumphun Province. Journal of Environmental Design, 3(1), 113–142. https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jed/article/view/68487/63016
Stokols, D. (1996). Translating social ecological theory into guidelines for community health promotion. American Journal of Health Promotion: AJHP, 10(4), 282–298. https://doi.org/10.4278/0890-1171-10.4.282 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4278/0890-1171-10.4.282
Sze, K.-H., Wong, E., Leung, H. Y., & Woo, J. (2001). Falls among Chinese stroke patients during rehabilitation. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82(9), 1219-1225. https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.25094 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.25094
Thiamwong, L., Thamarpirat, J., Maneesriwongul, W., & Jitapunkul, S. (2008). Thai falls risk assessment test (Thai-FRAT) developed for community-dwelling Thai elderly. J Med Assoc Thai, 91(12), 1823-1832. https://www.thaiscience.info/journals/Article/JMAT/10402715.pdf
Thianlai, K. (2022, April 27). 30 pī thī plīan pai kap khrūarư̄an phūsūngʻāyu Thai thī phœ̄m khưn [30 years of change with the increasing number of elderly Thai households]. Prachakorn. https://www.theprachakorn.com/newsDetail.php?id=620
ThaiHealth resource Center. (2016). Khūmư̄ kān prap saphāp bān samrap khonphikān dōi thō̜ngthin [Home modification guideline for disability persons in Thai local authority]. Thai Health Promotion Foundation. https://dol.thaihealth.or.th/File/media/16bd2d88-83dc-4818-94d5-8000158e490f.pdf
The Bureau of Registration Administration (BORA). (2024). Sathiti prachākō̜n thāng kān thabīan rātsadō̜n (rāi dư̄an) [Monthly civil registration statistics: Number of households by area]. Official statistics registration systems. https://stat.bora.dopa.go.th/stat/statnew/statMONTH/statmonth/#/mainpage
Wang, D., Li, H., & Liu, P. (2025). The impact of neighborhood environment and social interaction on the health of Chinese residents: empirical analysis from CGSS 2021. Frontiers Public Health, 13, 1547499. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1547499 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1547499
Yoo, J. S., Kim, C. G., Yim, J. E., & Jeon, M. Y. (2016). Factors influencing falls in the frail elderly individuals in urban and rural areas. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(4), 687–697. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40520-015-0469-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-015-0469-2
Yu, J., Ma, G., & Jiang, X. (2017). Impact of the built environment and care services within rural nursing homes in China on quality of life for elderly residents. Engineering, Construction Architectural Management, 24(6), 1170–1183. https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-08-2016-0187 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-08-2016-0187
Zanfi, F., Merlini, C., Giavarini, V., & Manfredini, F. (2020). A portrait of Italian ‘Family houses’: diversified heritage in a redefined territorial and demographic context. City, Territory and Architecture, 7(20), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-020-00125-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-020-00125-8
Zhao, Y. L., Alderden, J., Lind, B., & Stibrany, J. (2019). Risk factors for falls in homebound community-dwelling older adults. Public Health Nursing, 36(6), 772–778. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31407384/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.12651
